superstring theory! cz. I invite you to superstring subject interests me for 13 years. I met up with this theory on the occasion of a book, a professor of theoretical physics at City University of New York - Michio Kaku, titled "Hyperspace. The scientific journey through parallel universes, temporary loops, and the tenth dimension ", the Polish edition appeared in 1995. The physics are different theories that work experimentally in a narrow field of science, but some areas of physics managed to combine into a coherent mathematical whole, and not others. The biggest problem to solve was the problem of constructing a true, strict quantum theory of gravity - the unification of quantum theory and general relativity, Albert Einstein. This problem has haunted the greatest minds of the twentieth century, including Albert Einstein. Despite numerous attempts and partial Success does not yet have a final theory of quantum gravity. All proposals
sense the theory of everything proved mathematically inconsistent. We are forced now to go further to create a better theory that will combine into a coherent whole, both the general theory of relativity and quantum theory. Currently, the only candidate for a theory of everything is superstring theory.
Albert Einstein once asked the question: Did God create the universe had a choice? It seems not. The principles of general relativity and the theory Quantum is the so alien that any theory of combining them into a coherent whole must not only have enormous power, but must also be very well defined. Theory of everything must play Einstein's theory of gravity at large distances, and the quantum theory of particles on small, and outside it should be (as most physicists believe) conceptually simple. These conditions impose restrictions so large that it is possible that there is only one solution to this problem.
Let's start from the beginning: it was the year 1968! Gabriele Veneziano studying the strong nuclear interaction noted that the so-called beta function, discovered by the eminent mathematician - Euler, 200 years ago, perfectly describes the properties of the particles in the strong nuclear force. Everyone wondered why this description is 100% work? An attempt to explain the coincidence - imagine that particles are not points, but the vibrating threads, or strings. The further fate of string theory was strongly threatened by the difficulties encountered on his way to solve another theory, called quantum chromodynamics. In principle, quantum chromodynamics caused temporary deviation from string theory, but in 1974, John Schwarz and Joel Scherk noted that what is in string theory does not fit the nuclear interactions, perfectly suitable for gravitational interactions. Initially the idea was not enjoying great confidence of physicists, but 10 years later, Michael Green and John Schwarz pointed out that string theory has a chance to combine all the four main forces in physics: electromagnetism, gravity, weak nuclear force and strong.
String theory postulates that all particles that we observe in the universe, together with the atoms of our bodies are made up of small vibrating strings. Resonances, or "sounds" of strings, create a menagerie of elementary particles (fermions - such as an electron or a quark and bosons - such as the photon and the gluon). The universe is a symphony of vibrating strings, and the rules of harmony are known to us the laws of physics. In order to unify the physics discovered in the 70's mathematical transformations of the fermions transforming bosons and fermions on bosons. These transformations called supersymmetry. Shortly later discovered another extremely interesting property of supersymmetry, which contains something that is very similar to the general theory of relativity, Albert Einstein - this was something supergravity theory. Initially, the string theory is suspended in the non-existence for some time, but soon again, there was a hope: the string theory could be incorporated supersymmetry. As you can see lots of string theory have been in the history of an extremely turbulent and dramatic, and this is not the end. This combination of supersymmetry and string theory gave rise to a new theory - known since 1981 - superstring theory. And so it is also at the moment, the small successes of superstring theory, unfortunately, come the next crisis, and after them new hopes and so on ... One solution
other problems found to introduce new elements to enrich the theory of new and more advanced structures. It was necessary to enrich the theory of extra dimensions of space.
I used to think that there is only one superstring theory, we found recently that there be as many as five superstring theories. All five superstring theory is very similar to each other and actually have a theory called M-theory binds the other 5 together. All 5 of the theory implies the existence of 10 dimensions: 3 exterior - interior space and 6 - collapsed inwards, ie in the opposite direction + time. M-theory requires additional spatial dimension for the other five theories.
special feature of superstring theory is that the microscopic strings (about 100 billion billion times smaller than a proton) can vibrate only in a ten-space.
mystics, philosophers and authors of literary fiction has always fascinated to higher dimensions. But now we have a mathematical reason to believe in the ten-space, because only in a universe with such a number of dimensions is enough space to accommodate both quantum theory and Einstein's theory. (If you write a theory superstrings, say, 12 or 13 dimensions, it becomes mathematically inconsistent. The universe, which initially would have the number of dimensions would be unstable and would reduce the universe dziesięciowymiarowego).
Thus was born a new and surprising picture of quantum cosmology. Ten-bubble-universes are unstable. Our bubble soon after the split into two parts: a four-and sześciowymiarowy universe. Universe sześciowymiarowy fell in, and these dimensions have such a twisted (there are 10 trillion trillion times smaller than atom), we can not see them. But the collapse of a possible expansion of the universe sześciowymiarowego our four-dimensional universe, resulting in an expanding universe that we observe today. It is a byproduct of a much more violent events, which was to break a ten-space.
This also means that other bubbles may break up at 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 dimensions. However, you can show that these vesicles did not appear life. Physics tells us that stable stellar systems, atoms, and protons can exist only in four-dimensional universe. Our universe is probably four dimensions, because otherwise, we all would not be here and we could not think about this problem.
theme that I personally most interested in the occasion were superliczby superstring theory, which was discovered in recent years. They have a special property, their multiplication changes the sign. So, if we are the number of b, which belong to the set superliczb is clear that the following equation:
axb = - axa = axb
- axa
It is interesting to add that these mathematical transformations are used by theoretical physicists to simplifications tasiemcowych patterns in superstring theory. This is a very advanced theory of modern physics, now having indirect scientific evidence for its veracity and many supporters, because of the tendency to unify all the forces of physics into one coherent theory.
imaginary numbers in mathematics arose only because the real numbers is prohibited square root of -1. With superliczbami is inversely, that is, to simplify the real numbers, but have the additional property, which is demonstrated above in the model. It looks weird! Just multiply alter the mark. Interesting! Why? Let's try to treat superliczby as imaginary numbers, just a little bit modified:
As you can see the new math superliczb requires crossing a subsequent prohibition applicable to the real numbers, ie logarithm of -1. This is understandable when we accept that such numbers are superliczby imaginary in the other direction, which simplify the actual form.
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